Chapter 3: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations (Draft)

Chapter 3:

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

I.  Summary

 

 This research paper attempts to explore the influence of culture-bound syndromes in specific societies and cultures, either positive or negative.  

  The research method is descriptive, wherein articles and research by professionals in the medical field have been used to answer the research question posed. The study findings are as follows:

1.      Culture-bound syndromes are diseases which are not recognized officially by experts, save for a few examples, as the term is broad and vague.

2.      Culture-bound syndromes are not specific to one country or culture, as there are certain diagnoses which have the same effect as the disease found in another country.

3.      Most culture-bound syndromes categorized are more of a mental illness, though there are still examples that have physical signs and symptoms on the sufferers.

4.      A culture-bound syndrome is a major influence on a certain culture, as it also gives the country’s culture a unique identity, and has been intertwined with its traditional views.

II. Conclusions

 Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn:

1.      Culture-bound syndrome is still a phenomenon that is in need of a more thorough research due to its broad term and definition.

2.      When talking about the category’s influence in general, culture-bound syndrome is a way for modern medicine to explore the human body and its functioning. Despite the advancement of science, there is still a lot to improve on regarding this topic.

3.       Culture-bound syndrome may be a gateway for other cultures to explore another culture, finding its causes and influence that leads to the illness in question.

III. Recommendations

After drawing out conclusions, through brief as they are, the researcher makes the following suggestion/recommendations:

1.      Culture-bound syndrome should not be defined as found only in one specific culture, but rather a more general term to describe a variety of symptoms found in a number of countries, though not as much as worldwide.

2.      Researchers should explore more into the topic to give the category a more solid foundation, not only for their benefit, but for the populace as well.



IV. Bibliography

McLaren, Carrie and Ringe, Alexanra. “Curious Mental Illnesses Around the World” from (http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/21/mental_illness.html)

Hopton, Elizabeth. "Anorexia Nervosa in Adolescent Girls: A Culture-Bound Disorder of Western Society?" from (http://socialcosmos.library.uu.nl/index.php/sc/article/viewFile/36/32)

O'Neil, Dennis. "Culture Specific Diseases" and "Culture Specific Mental Disorders" from (http://anthro.palomar.edu/medical/med_4.htm)

Simons, Ronald. "Introduction to Culture-Bound Syndromes" Psychiatric Times, Volume 18, No. 11. November 1, 2001.

Wilkins, Alasdair. “The Jumping Frenchmen of Maine is history's most startling mental disorder” from (http://io9.com/5893214/the-jumping-frenchmen-of-maine-is-historys-most-startling-mental-disorder)

Saunders, Dustin. “Taijin Kyofusho: A Culture-Bound Syndrome” from
(http://www.brainphysics.com/taijin-kyofusho.php)

Wallace, Charles. “Mysterious Ailment Takes a Heavy Toll Among Thais : Southeast Asia: The Sudden Unexplained Nocturnal Death syndrome has killed hundreds of young men. Doctors remain baffled.” From (http://articles.latimes.com/1990-03-24/news/mn-721_1_sudden-unexplained-nocturnal-death-syndrome)

Hibbard, Chris. “The Windigo Psychosis” from (http://chrishibbard.wordpress.com/2008/10/31/the-windigo-psychosis/)

Chapter 2: Discussion (Draft)

Chapter 2

DISCUSSION

In what way do diseases affect specific societies and cultures?

I. Defining Culture-Bound Syndrome

  Culture-bound syndrome --also called culture-specific disease or folk illness-- is a generic term for a series of symptoms that may be regarded by most of the populace in a specific country or culture as a disease, many of which cannot be linked to a particular category in the diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders - IV (DSM IV).(Medical Dictionary, 2012) 

In the past, medical anthropologists have categorized that this disease is only found in the East and called "exotic psychotic syndrome, as said by McLean and Ringe.

To elaborate further, according to Carrie McLean and Alexanra Ringe:

"These days, Western science takes it as a given that mental illness is rooted in biology. But this approach ignores culture's role in shaping health: simply put, different social environments create different mental health problems. Psychiatrists used to call ailments limited to particular environs "exotic psychotic syndromes" until it dawned on them that Western culture has its syndromes, too--namely, anorexia and bulimia nervosa."

(http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/21/mental_illness.html)

As the name implies, it is an illness which is defined as such by those within the culture or society. Dr. Yatan Pal Singh Balhara defines the term in his article.

“Culture-bound syndrome is a broad rubric that encompasses certain behavioral, affective and cognitive manifestations seen in specific cultures. These manifestations are deviant from the usual behavior of the individuals of that culture and are a reason for distress/discomfort.”

(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3271505/)

With that in mind, it can be safely assumed that culture-bound syndrome is mostly a psychological manifestation unique only to those in a particular culture. As the name implies, the illness is “bound” to a certain culture only, and found nowhere else. But an argument by Ronald Simons (Psychiatric Times, 2001) stated,

“Since many of the culture-bound syndromes are not really syndromes, another term is needed to signify what we are talking about. Furthermore, not only are many of these conditions not syndromes, but some are not bound to a single culture.”

He also states:

“To date, no one has come up with a really good name for this group of conditions. Thus the name culture-bound syndrome persists simply for lack of a better term”

The term, just like “disease”, is still broad, with no solid foundation in and of itself. Culture-bound syndrome implies that the illness in question can be found in only one particular area of the world. 

To drive the point further, Carrie McLean and Alexanra Ringe states:

"Culture-bound syndromes are not linked to a particular culture in a particular time and place so much as to a prominent cultural emphasis. Cultures that place high importance on fertility, for example, may fuel fears of semen loss."

Elaborating on this quote, a country's culture is influenced by a number of other countries throughout history. Thus, if one keeps this in mind, it can be safely assumed that it cannot be said that a country has a unique history that is entirely different than those around it.

With these in mind, the researcher would like to propose that, although culture-bound syndrome itself is a common and widely accepted phenomenon that happens throughout the world, the definition and term these groups of mental inflictions are still vague and broad. It would be better if the definition and categorization would be rather specific, or at least give the diseases specific sub-categories as to not mix up their types.

II. Types of Culture-Bound Syndrome

  As stated from previously, culture-bound syndrome has a broad definition, as the disease under the category cannot be placed in a single and specific group. Thus, many diseases put under culture-bound syndrome may not be recognized by professionals as a legitimate. Some examples of these are:

Kuru

 – Also known as the laughing sickness, Kuru is a culture-specific disease that is also closely related to Creutzfeld-Jakob. According to an article by David O’ Neill, “the symptoms include palsy, contracted face muscles, and the loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eventually even eat.  Kuru victims become progressively emaciated.  The South Foré called this disease "trembling sickness" and "laughing sickness."”

(http://anthro.palomar.edu/medical/med_4.htm)

As with any disease affecting the nervous system and brain, the disease causes losing control of one’s own body, progressively getting worse. And in the same article by the author, there has been no known cure for this disease.

It was found only in South Fore, New Guinea that spread due to the consumption of the deceased’s flesh. According to the same author, at the beginning of the 20^th Century, the disease started to progress, and became more common throughout the 1950’s. Because of this, it caused a social problem among the tribe, as the women –who usually takes care of the children- are bedridden, and the men are forced to take care of their offspring as a result.

According to Francesca Fiore, whose article has already been removed due to unknown reasons,

They weren't, for the most part, what we have come to think of as cannibals in Western culture. They didn't contract the disease from so-called headhunting. They became afflicted with Kuru from their bizarre funeral customs

Anorexia nervosa

 – An eating disorder prevalent in Western society, wherein the sufferer restricts himself or herself from eating to the point of unhealthiness, along with it is the fear of gaining weight, and a distorted self-image. As stated by Elizabeth Hopton, “the relationship between how an individual evaluates himself (self-image) and his body (body image) can at best be defined within loose term.”

(http://socialcosmos.library.uu.nl/index.php/sc/article/viewFile/36/32)

An individual’s self-worth is related to how he perceives he is physically and mentally. But as most can attest, it is mostly through physical means, as it is normally what one judges on another person. Not only is the individual’s own self-esteem can cause this disorder, but also environmental effects as well. As from the researcher above stated,

“The secularist conceptualization of AN points to trends in modern Western society as being responsible for motivating extreme dieting and weight-concern. In particular, the media has been popularly cited as promoting an unrealistic aesthetic ideal of the young female body, resulting in an unhealthy preoccupation with body size.”

Since Western society’s standard of beauty is high, and is very influential throughout the culture, it causes stress on its populace, mostly women, to achieve the same standard to be accepted by their peers, resulting in extreme dieting and distorted self-image that results to this.  
Although the practice is, according to the same researcher above, “[self-starvation] date back to the Hellenistic era, the first medical description of AN was not published until the mid-19th century, and it has been argued that the diagnostic classifications in use today (DSM-IV and ICD-10) represent a modern reconceptualization of the pathology underlying the disorder (Habermas, 2005; Pearce, 2004, 2006).”

Another eating disorder due to similar reasons is called Bulimia nervosa, although both Anorexia and Bulimia are mixed up with each other more often than not.

Wendigo psychosis

 - Also known as “Windigo Psychosis”, it is a culture-bound syndrome wherein the person inflicted has --as with the legend-- an insatiable craving for human flesh despite the fact that the person in question is not in a sort of famine. The origin is that of the Wendigo, a feared mythological creature that was once human, but turned into a malicious spirit because the human in question consumed human flesh.

There have been reports that this occurred within the Algonquian native tribes, to which the myth of the Wendigo originated.

According to Chris Hibbard, “The initial symptoms (thought to be psychosomatic) of the Windigo Psychosis were depression, distaste for most ordinary foods and a subsequent poor appetite, nausea, and vomiting, followed by periods of semi-stupor. Gradually, the victim becomes obsessed with paranoid ideas of being bewitched and is subject to homicidal and sometimes suicidal thoughts. He feels that he has been possessed by the Windigo spirit or monster and it is controlling him, it is this delusion that gives the psychosis its name.”

(http://articles.latimes.com/1990-03-24/news/mn-721_1_sudden-unexplained-nocturnal-death-syndrome)

He also adds that “An affected person may see the people around him or her turning into beavers or other edible animals, leading the victim to become violent, homicidal, and cannibalistic. It is commonly thought that once this stage is reached and the victim has tasted human flesh, he or she must be killed.”

 A famous example of this is the account of a man named Swift Runner, who killed his wife and five children despite living 25 miles away from the nearest resource center.

According to Chris Hibbard:

“During the winter of 1878, Swift Runner and his family were starving, and his eldest son had died. Within just 25 miles of emergency food supplies at a Hudson Bay Company trading post, Swift Runner acted out on his delusions, butchering and eating his wife and five remaining children. He eventually confessed, and was executed by authorities at Fort Saskatchewan. That he resorted to cannibalism so near to food supplies, and that he killed all those present indiscriminately, reveal that Swift Runner’s was not a case of pure cannibalism (a last resort to avoid starvation) but rather a man suffering from Windigo Psychosis and becoming a homicidal cannibal.”

Bangungot

 – Also known as Sudden Unexpected Death Syndrome. The sufferers are mostly young men; and as the name implies, this is a culture-bound syndrome wherein the sufferer sleeps and never wakes up.

An example of the case is in a written article by Charles P. Wallace, where “a decade-old medical mystery that has confounded investigators in the United States and Southeast Asia by killing young, apparently healthy Asian men in their sleep has taken a new turn with the deaths in a single day of two Thai construction workers in the island republic of Singapore.”  

(http://articles.latimes.com/1990-03-24/news/mn-721_1_sudden-unexplained-nocturnal-death-syndrome)

The phenomenon is also prevalent in the Philippines, as the researcher herself can attest. Parents in the country would always warn their children to never eat before sleeping, as the illness may happen to them.

Taijin Kyofusho

 - In Japan, this is a social phobia wherein the individual shows fear of social events which may cause embarrassment for them.

According to Dustin Saunders, “Taijin kyofusho, centers on concerns about embarrassing others with one's presence, rather than embarrassing one's self in the presence of others. TKS is believed to emerge out of a childhood history of social inhibition and shyness. The disorder may abruptly follow a stressful or humiliating experience or its onset could be more subtle in nature with the lifetime course of the disorder usually existing on a continuum.”  

(http://www.brainphysics.com/taijin-kyofusho.php)

It is a culture-specific syndrome that's unique in Eastern society. In Western societies, this disease is mostly foreign, and unheard of. According to the same researcher above, Taijin Kyofusho is divided into sub-categories.

·         Sekimen-kyofu: the phobia of blushing

·         Shubo-kyofu: the phobia of a deformed body (similar to body dysmorphic disorder)

·         Jikoshisen-kyofu: the phobia of eye-to-eye contact

·         Jikoshu-kyofu: the phobia of having foul body odor (similar to olfactory reference syndrome)

As Japan is possibly the only country where this is found, it is not surprising to see that the prevalence is high.  As Dustin Saunders states, “taijin kyofusho affects 10-20% of the Japanese population.” He also says that majority of those inflicted are male, despite the fact that their female counterparts are more prone to be embarrassed than males, and even scoring high on the social phobia scale.

The Jumping Frenchmen of Maine

 - As the name implies, it is a culture-bound syndrome found exclusively in Maine. According to Alasdair Wilkins, the symptoms of those inflicted are “when startled, the men would display exaggerated, and apparently reflexive, reactions that included jumping, yelling, hitting, obeying commands, repeating back phrases even if they didn't understand the language used (a phenomenon known as echolalia), and imitating how other people moved (echopraxia). The men were also said to be shy and very ticklish.”

(http://io9.com/5893214/the-jumping-frenchmen-of-maine-is-historys-most-startling-mental-disorder)

To quote, the phenomenon was first investigated by neurologist George Miller Beard in 1878.

“He argued for several psychiatric reforms meant to protect the mentally ill, and he risked widespread public denouncement when he argued Charles Guiteau, the assassin of Present James Garfield, should be found not guilty by reason of insanity.” Alasdair Wilkins says.

Though not the most significant in his research, the illness in question did have the strangest. The cause of the illness “may have had some genetic component, considering most of the sufferers were closely related and came from one of four families, but that may just speak to the insular nature of the French-Canadian lumberjack community in 19th century Maine.” The same author states.

III. Influence of Culture-bound Syndromes in Societies and Cultures

  One positive influence of culture-bound syndrome is the fact it gives way for researchers and modern anthropologists a chance to discover more about the disease, and find a way to help those in their countries. In an article about Taijin Kyofusho, an illness which is foreign in the Western world, Dustin Saunders state that,

“Understanding this disorder is clearly important to the many whom suffer from it, but this cultural-bound syndrome is also an important aid in understanding the differences between Western society and other areas of the globe.”

(http://www.brainphysics.com/taijin-kyofusho.php)

If one were to think about it, culture-bound syndrome may help bridge an understanding between differing cultures, and possibly bring cooperation in understanding these symptoms and how it affects a certain society.

For example, before this study has been conducted, the researcher has already known that Japan is a country where courtesy and politeness is held in high regard. One example is the many suffixes (i.e. –san, -kun, -sama, etc.) that are added at the end of an individual’s name, and calling someone without these –especially if it’s their first name-- it is considered rude. Another example would be the various first person pronouns that are used for specific individuals. In Japan, a woman who uses that primarily male-oriented ‘boku’ is frowned upon, and the rougher ‘ore’ is mostly scandalous to hear. On formal occasions, the gender-neutral ‘watashi’ is used, such as interviews, etc.

If one gains this knowledge and make a connection, then Taijin Kyofusho’s prevalence would make sense in Japan. Thus, an understanding of a culture is established.

Another positive influence is that the disease itself is a part of the culture’s identity. Just like the example earlier, Taijin Kyofusho is a part of Japan’s modern culture and developed as such. Another example would be an illness in the Philippine’s called lanti. According to Ronald Simons,

“In certain parts of the Philippines, for example, when a person becomes ill in a number of very different ways (fever, stomachache, shouting during sleep, incessant crying, various skin ailments), it may be said that the individual is suffering from lanti. This is a way of saying that the presumed etiology of all of these complaints is having been shocked or startled some time before.” (Psychiatric Times, 2001)

Another disease found in the Philippines would something called pasma. This phenomenon is said to be caused by the interaction of heat and coldness. A firsthand account of the researcher herself would be doing laundry then ironing clothes. The sensation felt by the researcher as she did the laundry then immediately ironing clothes gave her –such as numbness and tremors—is a common sign of pasma. Although it is not recognized by professional medicine, medical anthropologists such as Micheal Tan do state that the phenomenon is legitimate.

To quote, “I've been lecturing in several medical schools for several years now and I keep urging health professionals to be more inquisitive about these illnesses because even if these are not recognized by mainstream medicine, the ailments are very real as far as people are concerned, causing suffering and may even be cited as the cause of death, as in the case of "bangungot."” (The Daily Inquirer, 2007)

This illness has been a part of Filipino culture, and there is possibly no citizen in the Philippines who has not heard of it, justifying that it does have a major influence on a culture and its populace, shaping it to what the traditional beliefs are today.

But as everything else, there is also a downside to culture-bound syndrome’s influence. A negative aspect of the disease, other than the signs and symptoms leading to death, is the mass hysteria that could prove fatal to those affected.

An example would be the effect of Koro, which is, according to Caren McLean and Alexanra Ringe,

“koro, or genital retraction syndrome, is gripped by the fear that his penis is shrinking and gradually being absorbed by his body. (Women suffer from koro, too--afraid for their nipples or vulva--but this is much rarer.) A typical case of koro goes like this: A man goes to urinate and notices that his penis is becoming smaller. Usually this happens because he's in a cold place or because he's upset about something--his sex life, for example. Both anxiety and exposure to cold cause male genitals to shrink temporarily.”

(http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/21/mental_illness.html)

And to further elaborate, they state that “rather than shrugging the incident off, the man--who has heard about koro attacks in his community--only grows more anxious, particularly since koro is considered deadly. As panic mounts, the man grabs his genitals before they can retract into his body and calls for help.”

This culture-bound syndrome is found in cultures where one’s fertility is an important aspect, such as China, Malaysia and India. It is purely psychological, but the extent the sufferer would do to avert the so-called retraction ranges from mild to severe. The physical effect is just as bad as the psychological, as one’s fear can drive the individual to go through extreme measures to alleviate the problem.

Thus, the researcher then concludes that culture-bound syndrome is something that may not only have a foundation for medical anthropologists, but also something that may help different cultures to understand another that is entirely different from their own. Its influence on the society it is found in is important, and gives many people a gateway to understanding their cultures, and how it works.

Post 12: Dorian Gray Syndrome

  Reading has been a habit of mine, on par with drawing and surfing the internet. And one of the things I've read is called The Picture of Dorian Gray, a novel that tells of a young man named Dorian Gray, the muse of an artist named Basil Hallward, who is entranced by Dorian's beauty and becomes infatuated with him. Dorian then meets a friend of Basil's named Lord Henry Wotton, a hedonist, who suggests that the only things worth in life is beauty and fulfillment in the senses.

  Realizing that his beauty will fade away someday, Dorian expresses his desire that his painting should age in his place, even selling his soul for that. His wish is fulfilled, and he then pursues a life of sensuality and debauchery.


  And like the narcissistic Dorian Gray, the main focus of those with Dorian Gray syndrome is their beauty, and have been said to have turned into heavy users of cosmetic products and surgery in an effort to preserve their beauty and youth. Like the famous Narcissus, these people are obsessed with their beauty, to the point of madness.

  In an article by Andrea Zanin titled "Dorian Gray Syndrome", explains how narcissism runs rampant in modren society, and how this leads wo insecurities and to things such as this syndrome.

"Self-loathing ignites the desire for perfection and this, in turn, results in narcissism. Yet there is a distinction between the narcissism associated with DGS and the self-respect which denotes a healthy self-love. The ability to love oneself is a sign of self-respect as well as the admission that life is precious, and it is necessary in order to love others. If one is void of love, “blank” like Madame Zhou, how can one love another?"

  Loving oneself has been an issue to people, even now. It's something we can relate to. And as the quote said above, how can we love another if we can't even love ourselves? In our harsh society, it's hard to even feel comfortable in our skin with people judging you, and as such, it's more of an admirable trait to those who feel so.

Post 11: Cotard's Delusion

In 1880, a woman visited a French neurologist named Jules Cotard, wherein she said to have 'no brain, no nerves, no chest, no stomach, no intestines'. The woman, dubbed Mademoiselle X by Cotard in his notes, claimed that she was nothing more than a decomposing that believed neither God nor Satan existed. She also stated that, since she could not die a natural death, she had no need to eat. Mademoiselle X died of starvation later on.  

This phenomenon is then eventually known as Cotard's delusion where those inflicted have a belief that they are, in fact, dead, lack certain parts or, in severe cases, believe that they have attained immortality. Most sufferers have nihilistic points of view. As this is a very rare disease, there is still a lack of information regarding the subject. I found an article by an unknown author that stated that despite the fact that Cotard's case is well-known, there was also a case a hundred years prior to his that involved a woman that had a stroke and passed out. After waking up, the woman demanded she be placed in a coffin as she was dead. Although the woman had recovered from her delusions, these sadly came back every three months. The cause of this disease is, sadly, still not known.

In article by Melissa Barett, called Real Life Zombies: Three Fascinating Cases of Cotard's Syndrome, shows three particular examples of the disease

Despite the technological advancements of humanity, this case still shows how much we have still to discover many things about our own brain. I hope to see experts explore the subjet and find the source of this outstanding case.

Post 10: The Jumping Frenchmen of Maine

  In all my research about culture-bound syndrome and diseases in general, I've come across a lot of weird symptoms and cases like the Foreign Accent Syndrome. And while it's not exactly the most odd disease out there, the Jumping Frenchmen of Maine is seriously the strangest name I have ever heard for a disease. I expected something long and complicated (like Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis) as typical for a scientific name, or at least something that sounds complicated.

  Anyway, the Jumping Frenchmen of Maine is a culture-bound syndrome found, if you still haven't noticed, in Maine after a particular incident where French-Canadian lumberjacks who have entailed an exaggerated "startle" reflex, an uncontrollable "jump" to those who have seen it . This is not the only symptom that they have displayed as they are also said to be prone to yelling, hitting, obeying any random orders, copy other people's movements or back phrases (this is something called echophraxia and echolalia, respectively). The lumberjacks are also said to be rather shy.

   So what exactly is the source of this disorder? According to an article by Alasdair Winkins, entitled "The Jumping Frenchmen of Maine is history's most startling mental disorder",

"This particular instance may have had some genetic component, considering most of the sufferers were closely related and came from one of four families, but that may just speak to the insular nature of the French-Canadian lumberjack community in 19th century Maine."

 But this is still not an exact source of the phenomenon, and researchers are still exploring the possibilities as to how it occurred. One part of the article shows an anecdote from a neurologist named George Miller Beard, who had set out to explore the disease, putting well-researched and fascinating anecdotes about his research, and is said to be similar to an even stranger disease in Siberia called miryachit. To quote:

"Thus, when the captain slapped the paddle-box suddenly, he seemed compelled against his will to imitate it instantly, and with remarkable accuracy. To annoy him, some of the passengers imitated pigs grunting, or called out absurd names ; others clapped their hands and shouted, jumped, or threw their hats on the deck suddenly, and the poor steward, suddenly startled, would echo them all precisely, and sometimes several consecutively."

In that quote, the sad truth about the disease shows, despite the weird name it has. It would be all too common for people, especially those who are of ignorant nature, to mock or to taunt people with this types of disease without knowing that those inflicted are forced to imitate everyone around them no matter how much they don't want to.

Post 9: Hikikomori

  There are some situations where you mess up quite badly to the point that you just want to hide yourself away from the rest of the world. Other times, people are so stressed out about their problems that they just wan't to break away from real life, and live a solitary life.

 In Japan, there is such phenomenon prevalent even today, and it's called hikikomori. The term hikikomori means "pulling inward" or "withdrawal". This is a culture-bound syndrome wherein the person shuts himself within their own rooms in a period longer than six months and isolates themselves from society. There a lot of factors that contribute to their behavior. Some were bullied and were unhappy with their school life, other could not take the pressure of finding a proper job, or at least struggle to fit in the economic flow. The Japanese school system is said to be strict with youths, and putting in a pass-or-fail ideology which induces a high level of stress.

According to an article by Micheal Grisafe, entitled "Can Culture Create Mental Disease? The Rise of “Hikikomori” in the Wake of Economic Downturn in Japan" that hikkikomori is not an act of rebellion due to the ideology, but an act of opposing the core values of Japanese work and social ethic.

"This topic has grown increasingly urgent in Japan as the so-called “first-generation” of hikikomori who have been living with their parents for the past 20 years approaches 40. Many worry not only for the fate of these aging hikikomori, but the social and economic consequences for Japan as the hikikomori’s parents retire and pass away. As their parents die off, Japan may be faced with the very real problem of integrating a large population of socially disengaged and unskilled individuals into society."

The phenomenon is growing ever so slowly, but this is something that should be given immediate action. If society don't take a step in helping these people that have cracked under pressure, then it will certainly affect the country in the near future.

Post 8: Taijin Kyofusho

 There are many instances where people are anxious about social functions and events such as speeches, reports, presentations, and many more. It's normal to feel nervous speaking to a lot of people, and feel the pressure with their eyes on you. I had a lot of experience with this one. We had a presentation for our Research writing, and I was called on in front. Of course, I didn't expect it, but I tried to act normal, but to be honest, I was already shaking from both the cold and from anxiety.

 If you think my nervousness was bad, just you wait until you see something called Taijin Kyofusho. In Japan, this is a social phobia wherein the individual shows fear of social events which may cause embarrassment for them. It's a culture-specific syndrome that's unique in Eastern society. In Western societies, this disease is mostly foreign, and unheard of. According to an article by Dustin Saunders, entitled "Taijin Kyofusho: A Culture-Bound Syndrome", the individual with Taijin Kyofusho fears embarrassing the peers they are with, not themselves. They fear that their appearance and behaviors may offend other people, thus causing them extreme distress.

"As a result of these feelings, they also experience persistent suffering in the form of emotional distress through shame, embarrassment, anxiety, fear, and other tense feelings when confronted with social circumstances. In addition, individuals also worry about being unable to maintain healthy relationships with others. "

 Due to their anxieties, there were some who tend to isolate themselves from the outside world and lock themselves up in their own homes. In Japan, a survey result showed that most of the sufferers of this anxiety disorder are male, despite the females scoring higher on the social phobia scale.

 Fear is a heavy emotion that makes us stop taking risks because of the possible negative outcome. But as a line I heard before, it's more shameful for us to not stand up and try again after failing.

Post 7: Fallen Fontanelle

There are different sorts of folk beliefs running around; an example would be the belief that sweeping at night would lessen your blessings, or the ever-so popular one about the black cat causing bad luck to whoever comes across them.

In Hispanic folklore, there's this belief that a cure for a baby's fallen fontanelle (or the top soft part of the baby's head) would be sucking on it, or even hanging the child upside-down to return it to its proper place. There are different causes to why this happens, according to this article by Robert T. Trotter.

"The folk diagnosis of caida de moilera is not based solely on the presence or absence of a depressed fontanelle. The infant must also exhibit a set of accompanying symptoms which include
excessive crying, a reduced desire or ability to feed, diarrhea, vomiting, restlessness, and irritability. These symptoms typically persist for several days."

Although this is a culture-bound syndrome, there are still some medical basis as to why this happens, and most often it is a sign dehydration. In one article I've read, it is said that it was a concept that dated way back into the Aztec times, and it is something not found in Europe, or even in other countries in Latin America.  Despite being labelled as a culture-bound syndrome, this is something believed to be a sign of a more serious infliction, most often said to be dehydration.

Despite the lack of attention from modern medical institutions, I believe that this is something to be evaluated and explored more, as it can help unveil some helpful factors for children and infants with this infliction.

Post 6: The Mystery that is Bangungot

As I mentioned in one of my articles, I love eating. I have a fondness for snacking during night, especially if I have some extra school-related work to do, since it helps me stay awake and give me a bit of energy to pursue my tasks. Most of the time, my mother will catch me heating up some leftovers from dinner earlier, and she would always say "Huwag ka kumain ng marami, baka magkabangungot ka." ("Don't eat too much, you might get nightmares.") I've tested it out one time --please don't try to do it though, since there's a popular belief this causes acute pancreatitis, or the inflammation of the pancreas-- and ate a lot before sleeping. I woke up feeling fine, to be honest.

I told my mother about it and asked what the big deal is, she didn't look pleased about what I did and explained that there were a few instances where people slept on a full stomach and never woke up; most of them had no visible signs that they died. I got a bit curious, so I went on and started to look up bangungot on the internet, and it gave me two results.

First was about a local Philippine folk legend called a Batibat, a vengeful creature that sits on its victim's chest or face, and immobilizes and suffocates them. The second one is what we call "Sudden unexpected death syndrome", which is the closest thing as the one my mother told me.

According to this article I found, it seems the phenomenon isn't exclusive to just the Philippines, but to other Asian countries.

 "The unexplained deaths have stunned the estimated 200,000 Thais in Singapore, where they provide mainly low-cost labor as domestic servants and construction workers. Concern is so great that the Thai government dispatched a team of medical investigators from the Public Health Ministry to Singapore last week, but they returned home Tuesday without having solved the mystery."We didn't come up with any conclusion," said Ong-art Klamphaiboon, the public health official who led the delegation."

The phenomenon is so mysterious, that there is only little to no articles that could explain why this happens. Some say it's due to eating, as with my mother; while others say it's due to heart failures, despite the contradiction that no damage is seen on the sufferer, including internally. In the near future, perhaps we'll find out. But for now, there's nothing much to do but to be careful and take extra precautions.

Post 5: Wendigo Psychosis

 Mythology is a rich source for many information regarding the views people in earlier times, and each culture have their own myths about creatures our ancestors have either feared or revered. These beings range from the well-known gods and goddesses, to the feared monsters that are the source of horror, chaos, and destruction. In the Native American mythology, there is a certain monster that is described as powerful, and is highly feared by the Algonquins: this is the Wendigo.

 A Wendigo (there are alternative spellings, though this one is something I prefer) is a fearsome creature that feeds on human flesh; it is malevolent, with great spiritual power, and is associated with Winter, as well as famine and starvation. According to the myth, a Wendigo was once a human who have resorted to cannibalism; once they've consumed flesh, an evil spirit will possess them, and forced the person to have an insatiable taste for human flesh. As with most cultures, cannibalism in the Algonquin culture is considered to be a taboo, even if it is a desperate act to save one's life.

 I, myself, am a fan of horror and gore -- I grew to love it when I was still young and dreaming of being involved in the medical field; I thought it'll help me get used to the blood and all-- It's no question that I've come across several things which involves cannibalism. At a rather young age, I came across one of these, and to say I was horrified wouldn't cut it. I couldn't believe it actually happens in real life; it was one of the worst fears I had back then. But now I think I grew rather indifferent towards after learning how to view things in a more detached manner, as I do to most things people would normally think of as disgusting and horrific. So when I've come across the words "wendigo psychosis", I had the faintest feeling it was what I thought it is.

 Wendigo psychosis is a culture-bound syndrome wherein the person inflicted has --as with the legend-- an insatiable craving for human flesh despite the fact that the person in question is not in a sort of famine. It's not only characterized by the cannibalism; according to an article by Chris Hibbard, there are other factors that makes a certain mental illness be categorized as Wendigo psychosis.

"The initial symptoms (thought to be psychosomatic) of the Windigo Psychosis were depression, distaste for most ordinary foods and a subsequent poor appetite, nausea, and vomiting, followed by periods of semi-stupor. Gradually, the victim becomes obsessed with paranoid ideas of being bewitched and is subject to homicidal and sometimes suicidal thoughts. He feels that he has been possessed by the Windigo spirit or monster and it is controlling him, it is this delusion that gives the psychosis its name."

 One famous case of Wendigo psychosis is Swift Runner, who killed his wife and five children despite living 25 miles away from the nearest resource center. He admitted this without much prodding, and explained that the spirit of a Wendigo beckoned him to do it. He was arrested, and remained rather calm throughout his execution. He even thanked the people who arrested him. Strange, isn't it?

 Nonetheless, Swift Runner was hung on December 20, 1879 for his crimes.

After years of reading and being desensitized to most horrors people would be screaming at, I think the most horrific thing that I've realized is how some people commit acts of brutality with no repentance, nor feeling. It is common today, I know that, but it wasn't because of apathy that makes is terrifying. It's that most people aware of what they're doing, how they know they are maddened by paranoia and other factors, and how it drives them to do unspeakable acts. But they can't do anything about it, to the point that they beg other people to make them stop, or they lost all feelings, if at all.

Chapter 1: Introduction (Draft)

Influence of Diseases in Specific Cultures

A Research Paper Presented to

Mr. Dustin Celestino of the English Resource Center

Asia Pacific College

Magallanes, Makati

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Course

RESWRITE-Research Writing

Angela Ashley F. Villaluz

February 2013

Chapter 1

Introduction

      A.    Background of the Study

The term “disease” is broad and rather difficult to place in a specific sort of definition; the very well-known definition is tedious to place in a single sentence. The subject has a variety of terms, categories, sub-categories, etc., that may seem limitless, and differs in each cultures. For the latter, it is called “culture-bound syndrome” or “culture-specific diseases”.

Culture-bound syndrome is defined as a disease recognized only in specific cultures or societies. To be more specific, it is a collection of symptoms and signs which are only defined as a disease only to those of the specific culture. But coming across different articles, the main definition still varies and has no solid form whatsoever. Psychiatrists have called these “exotic psychotic syndrome”, and it was once believed to be prevalent in only in Eastern culture, until Western society has found out of its own prevalent culture-bound syndrome. (http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/21/mental_illness.html)

 As stated by the article by Carrie McLaren and Alexanra Ringe above, a known possible example would be anorexia and bulimia nervosa, of which are influenced by Western society’s fixed definition of beauty, represented by tall skinny women that are seen in television and magazines. Anorexia nervosa is under Eating disorders, with its well-known symptoms and signs are “[the patient] refuses to maintain body weight at or above 85% of normal weight for age and height” and “intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, despite being underweight. (http://socialcosmos.library.uu.nl/index.php/sc/article/viewFile/36/32)

The researcher observes that in each culture, there is a varying degree of how the populace acts towards certain illnesses. An example would be the Kuru, or Laughing Disease which was prevalent long ago in Papua, New Guinea. Though many experts have tried to uncover the truth behind the disease, the people of the Fore tribe concludes that the disease is caused by contagious magic, and have been careful to dispose of anything personal (i.e, nails, hair, excretions, etc.)
(http://anthro.palomar.edu/medical/med_4.htm)

Culture-bound syndrome is said to be common among Eastern society. Most, if not all, are merely ways to explain a few mysteries regarding an unexplained phenomenon prevalent in their society. In the Philippines, there is a unique sort of folk illness called pasma, an illness attributed to the interaction of heat and coldness. It has its own signs, symptoms, perceived causes and diagnosis known in Philippines folk medicine. Although it is not entirely recognized by professional medical anthropologists, nor is it discussed in medical institutions.

“Because the culture-bound syndromes are so varied, there can be no single type of diagnostic or therapeutic approach.” – Dr. Ronald Simons, “An Introduction to Culture-Bound Syndromes”

Rather than focus solely on the broad categories of diseases, this paper focuses specifically on diseases which affects various cultures and society.

B.     Statement of the Problem

This study aims to answer this question:

I. In what way do diseases affect specific societies and cultures?

C.     Significance of the Study

Students who are taking a course in the medical field. This research will help specify the factors which partake in developing specific folk illnesses, its history,  as well as help define its effects on the populace that are a part of the culture.

Future Researchers. This research aims to help those who wish to further explore the topic, as well as give them a thorough report on specific folk illnesses and its remaining influence in today’s modern society.

D.    Scopes and Delimitations

This research aims to explore the aspects that affect society wherein it develops into a culture-bound syndrome or a folk illness.

Due to time constraints, the researcher aims to focus on diseases and its influence. Certain aspects such as its connection to other cultures and how to categorize one sort of disease as a folk illness will not be fully explored, although it shall be brushed upon in specific articles.

Resources of the research will focus on professionals and their studies on the subject, as well as their opinions and viewpoint upon the matter.

E.     Materials and Methods

The research will follow a descriptive method, wherein the researcher’s aim to explore the factors and effects of culture-bound syndromes. It will state several ideas and information as to how one disease is only prevalent in specific areas, and how it influences the populace not only physically, but psychologically.

Information will be gathered from credible sources and articles found in the internet, as well as from books and specific individuals with knowledge on the subject.

F.      Definition of Terms

Medical anthropologists. Those who are involved in the study of human health, disease and healthcare systems.

Folk illness. Another term for culture-specific syndrome.

Post 4: Anorexia and Today’s Modern Standards

Be aware of eating disorders.

Living healthy is a must, and is something that’s highly encouraged. As a person who prefers to eat for pleasure –especially if sweets and desserts--, I think this trait is something to be admired. Add the fact that in every street corner there’s no of shortage of fast food restaurants, it really is something.

But of course, like everything else, there’s always some sort of downside to it. I don’t mean living healthy, I mean the envy and attitude towards it goes into the extreme. Of course, with all the pressures of society on people with excess weight have a symbolic meaning of greediness and gluttonous self-indulgence, many people would think the opposite of it is good. Add the fact with all the glamor of those thin supermodels we see on fashion shows and commercials, then there’s this sort of insecurity that makes people –particularly, women—feel awful about their current image.

 

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder where the food restriction goes into unhealthy, and along with it is the fear of gaining weight. It’s more prevalent in Western society, though I’m quite sure there’s also no lack of it here in our country.  It is not, as most people think, a loss of appetite. A person with this specific disorder certainly feels appetite, but has an addiction to fasting to lose weight. Along with it come the metabolic and hormonal disorders, as well as the distorted self-image.

According to an article by Dr. Emily T. Tronscianko, who had first-hand experience with Anorexia herself, details about how society’s warped view of thinness and beauty can affect people into Anorexia with all the disapproval with fat people, the admiration for people very thin people, especially in the fashion industry’s models can affect us.

“I knew that if the world as we knew it ended and I was still anorexic, I'd be crippled by anger at myself, by regret and by the deepest imaginable sadness that I'd insisted on refusing to eat when there was enough. When I then did start to eat more again, a couple of years later, I cried too, because it felt so beautiful and so awful that any food I wanted was there, waiting for me, and that I could choose anything I wanted to make myself better again: an unholy privilege, to say no to food for so many years, and then to have it all there for the taking as soon as I got over that perversion born, at least in part, of over-privilege.”

With the rise of ‘pro-ana’ websites, as well as the harsh view society has, it’s definitely nothing to laugh about. And with all the things I’ve witnessed with people who even long to have anorexia definitely says something about today’s society. The warped image society has on beauty and standards affect our vision of perfection and what’s good and what’s not good. Even if one can say their honest opinion about the negative effects media may glorify, the majority’s opinion will still win out.

Post 3: The Unsettling Laughing Sickness

Zombies are famous icons in the horror genre. I don’t think there’s anyone in the 21^st century who hasn’t heard the word zombie before. From black magic to animal diseases, there were many different causes why this infection started, one of which was something called Kuru.

Kuru is a rare degenerative disease that has affected only, mysteriously enough, the Fore tribe in Papua, New Guinea. According to the article "Kuru: The Laughing Sickness- The Oddest & Rarest Infectious Disease in The World" by Francesca Fiore, the main cause of this disease, which had been thoroughly researched by Australian doctors in 1957, was not because of the environmental toxins nor was it hereditary. Because of the unknown causes, and also because of the tribe’s lack of communication outside, they have thought this disease was because of witchcraft, or a curse placed on their family.

As stated in this article by Dennis O'Neil, it was not until the late 1950’s when American pediatrician Carleton Gajdusek came to try and solve the problem. It was discovered through the microscopic examination of dead Kuru victims, he discovered that the disease organism was carried through the bloodstream and was concentrated in the brain tissue.

When you look at the microscopic view of the brain tissues of Kuru and compare them to classic CJD (most commonly known as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease) and Scrapie, it was clear enough for them to conclude that Kuru is caused by prions. And because of this, it has spread some light on what was the cause of this incurable disease; it was the Fore tribe’s unusual funeral ceremony: the consumption of dead relatives. Or most commonly called as cannibalism.

“They weren't,  for the most part, what we have come to think of as cannibals in Western culture. They didn't contract the disease from so-called headhunting. They became afflicted with Kuru from their bizarre funeral customs.”

To bring out stronger evidence, those afflicted with the disease are mostly women and children, who ate the less desirable parts of the body which includes the brain. Another factor, as the article states, is the women’s exposure to the deceased’s blood and tissues from food preparation, bringing a higher risk when they’re exposed on cuts and open sores.

Today, cannibalism in New Guinea is outlawed, but there are still those out there who are affected due to the disease’s long incubation period, some of which lasted up to 30 years. And because of this, it is now believed that the disease is completely extinct.

Although it is not the only culture-specific disease out there, Kuru is a very notable disease and has been a source of inspiration in some notable works.

Post 2: Different Cultural Views on Alcohol Consumption

To cope with the stress the people suffer from –whether it is from work, exams, or other known factor- it is only natural for people to indulge in something to enjoy and indulge in to relax and let loose. One of these, of course, is drinking. Alcohol has played a large part in many, if not all, human cultures since Neolithic times, approximately about 4000 B.C. But it’s something left unsaid that drinking can be bad when taken to extreme levels.

Alcoholism is one of the many problems our society faces, and also one of the primary factors in minor crimes. Many of these vary between ethnicity  countries and cultural upbringing; not only that, but it is also affected by certain factors, such as one’s environment or situation. Some cultures have Alcoholism as a problematic yet prevalent part of everyday life; there are also some who have had little to none of this problem, even viewing it as “rare” and “indecent”.

While searching for disorders, ailments and diseases which are viewed differently between countries, I've come across an article by Dr. Stanton Peele called “Alcohol and Society: How Culture Influences the Way People Drink”, an article which explores the different factors that affects one’s drinking habits. Although it was long, it was informational and helpful in determining in what way our culture affects our habits, specifically in this article, alcohol consumption.

“The destructive personal and social consequences of alcohol abuse are not entirely or even largely due to the prevalence of drinking or the amount of alcohol consumed.”

One of the things that caught my eye in the article is how one culture, specifically Italians and Chinese people, have introduced alcohol to young people as a part of everyday life and in doing so, have them develop self-control and a moderate drinking practice. There is no specific law where an underage child should be protected from alcohol in countries such as France and China; while in countries such as Italy and Spain, children are given small quantities of wine as a routine part of a meal and celebration. In Jewish culture, children are taught that wine is something sacred, and can only be consumed as an act of communion.

And one of the things I noticed about the factors of cultures with immoderate drinking habits have no concrete social customs about drinking etiquette, which then leads to people relying on their peers and people in their social norms, some if which lead to peer pressure into drinking. Along with that, there is also the factor in one country where drinking is inexcusable, abstinence is approved. Without someone who would lead them into a proper moderate drinking habit, a person may end up drinking into excess, leading to alcohol abuse. Along with that is the strict government rule about drinking. And as most of us know, most of these are not followed; simply because of the thrill one feels when someone breaks the rules.


People should take note that drinking is not a bad thing, depending on their beliefs. Indulging is normal for us, but we should also remember that doing certain things in excess is awful, and that we should remember to take things in moderation and with self-control.